French Revolution, Napoleon, unification of Germany and Italy, Romanticism
Nationalism is a feeling of strong attachment and loyalty to one's nation. It involves the idea that people who share the same language, culture, history, and territory should have their own independent state.
Before the 19th century, most Europeans did not think of themselves as "French" or "German" — they identified with their local community, prince, or religion.
Artists often portrayed nations as female figures — like "Marianne" for France (Liberty, Equality) or "Germania" for Germany (holding a sword, in armour). These were not real people, but allegories — symbolic representations of the spirit of a nation, helping people visualise abstract ideas.
The French Revolution of 1789 was the first major event where nationalism and democracy merged. Key ideas: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.
Changes:
• Abolished monarchy → established Republic
• Idea of "la patrie" (the fatherland) and "le citoyen" (the citizen)
• National anthem, national flag (tricolour), new army — citizens fighting for the nation, not the king
• French ideas spread to other countries through Napoleon's conquests
Napoleon (1799–1815) initially spread revolutionary ideals but ultimately created a new empire. His key contributions:
• Napoleonic Code (1804): Civil law code that abolished feudal privileges, established equality before law, secured right to property, abolished serfdom
• Standardised weights, measures, and currency
• Abolished internal customs duties → promoted economic unity
A customs union formed in 1834 among several German states, abolishing tariffs and creating a unified economic zone. This is an excellent example of how economic integration preceded political unification and strengthened nationalist sentiment!
Romanticism was a cultural movement that sought to create a national sentiment and identity through shared culture. It emphasised:
• Emotions, feelings, and imagination over reason
• Folk art, folk songs, folk dances — "real" culture of ordinary people
• Local languages over Latin → helped unite people who shared the same language
Key figures: German philosophers Herder, Fichte; poets like Schiller; composers like Beethoven
Language played a crucial role in developing nationalist feeling. When Polish people were ruled by Russia, Russian was imposed. Poles resisted by using their own language — making language itself an act of nationalism. In Germany, promotion of German language unified the many German-speaking states culturally.
1848 Revolution: Liberals tried to unify Germany through democratic means → failed (kings crushed it)
Bismarck's Approach ("Blood and Iron"): Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Prussia, believed Germany could not be unified through idealism — only through military power ("Blood") and industrial strength ("Iron")
Three wars fought: Against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), France (1870–71)
January 1871: Prussian king William I proclaimed German Emperor (Kaiser) at Versailles → Germany unified!
Giuseppe Mazzini: Founded "Young Italy" (1832) — ideology and propaganda
Cavour (Count Cavour): Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont — diplomatic strategy, formed alliances (with France)
Giuseppe Garibaldi: Military force — led "Red Shirts" (1000 volunteers) to liberate southern Italy
1861: Italy proclaimed a unified kingdom under Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia
Venetia unified in 1866 (after Austria-Prussia war) | Rome unified in 1871 (after French troops withdrew)